A coupled atmosphere–ocean numerical model is used to examine the relative contributions of atmospheric and oceanic processes in developing the Arabian Sea Mini Warm Pool (MWP). The model simulations were performed for three independent years, 2013, 2016, and 2018, through April–June, and the results were compared against observations. The model-simulated sea surface temperature (SST) and sea surface salinity (SSS) bias were less than 1.75°C and 1 psu, respectively; this bias was minimal in the MWP region. Moreover, the model simulated results effectively represented the presence of the MWP across the three different years. The mixed-layer heat budget analysis indicated that the net surface heat flux raised the mixed-layer temperature tendency of the MWP by a maximum of 0.1°C d^-1 during its development phase. The vertical processes exerted a cooling impact on the temperature tendency throughout May and June with a maximum of –0.08°C d^-1. Nonetheless, the decrease of net surface heat flux emerged as the dominant factor for the dissipation of the MWP. Further, four sensitivity numerical experiments were performed to investigate the comparative consequences of the ocean and atmosphere on the advancement of the MWP. The sensitivity experiments indicated that pre-April ocean conditions in years with a strong MWP resulted in a 136 % increase in MWP intensity in years when MWP SST was close to the climatology, which shows the primary role of oceanic preconditioning in determining MWP strength during strong-MWP years. Once the oceanic preconditions are met, the atmospheric conditions of weak-MWP years lead to an 82 % reduction in MWP intensity relative to normal years, highlighting the detrimental impact of atmospheric forcing under such circumstances. Atmospheric conditions, particularly wind, are critical in influencing the spatial evolution and dissipation of the MWP in the southeastern Arabian Sea (SEAS). A wind shadow zone, characterized by less production of turbulent kinetic energy that does not exist during weak-MWP years, facilitates the spatial expansion of the MWP in SEAS during moderate to strong-MWP years.

A joint oceanography and acoustics experiment was conducted on the Washington continental shelf in the summer of 2022. A towed system measured the in situ sound speed field along a 20 km track between acoustic sources and receivers. A weak but persistent subsurface duct was found with its sound speed minimum generally in the 50–100 m–depth range. The duct exhibited range and time dependence due to the internal tide, internal waves, and possibly other oceanographic processes. Mid-frequency (3500 and 6000 Hz) transmission loss (TL) was measured at 10 and 20 km ranges. The subsurface duct has a 10–13 dB effect on TL, depending on whether the sound source is inside or outside the duct. Measurements were also made using a bottom-mounted source, with transmissions every 3 min over several days. The sound intensity varies about 10 dB over a few minutes, while the scintillation index fluctuates between 0.5 and 1.5. Overall, it is found that mid-frequency sound propagation is variable at several temporal scales, ranging from minutes to hours, to days, or longer. Reducing the impact of these variabilities in acoustic applications would benefit from knowledge of the ocean processes at these different time scales.

Wind and pressure fields associated with a tropical cyclone are the primary driving atmospheric forcing for storm surge computations. Here, performance of various atmospheric forcing during an Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm Hudhud of Bay of Bengal (BoB) in computing storm surges and wave characteristics are evaluated with observations. Atmospheric forcings considered are obtained from parametric wind models of Holland, reanalysis data -ERA5, and a fully physics-based weather prediction model-WRF. Study utilises ADvance CIRCulation (ADCIRC) model in standalone as well as tightly coupled with, Simulating WAves Nearshore (ADCIRC + SWAN) for generating storm surge and wave characteristics, respectively. Peak water levels at landfall are well computed when forced by parametric wind model than ERA5 or WRF. Also, ADCIRC + SWAN, resulted in an additional wave-set up ranging from 0.05 m to 0.35 m with different atmospheric forcing. Furthermore, study revealed that, both standalone ADCIRC and coupled ADCRIC + SWAN model predicted storm surge levels better when forced with 1980 Holland wind model. However, significant wave heights were better simulated by ADCIRC + SWAN with WRF forcing. This study aims to assess the capabilities of various atmospheric forcing methods employed in the BoB for the prediction of storm surges and waves, in addition to providing valuable insights for further improvement.